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| − | == '''Return to Main Page [[History 8]]''' ==
| + | Return to Main Page [[History 8]] |
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| | + | Work must be supported with citation of source. Manual may be noted with Manual and page number(s). Be sure to use Noodletools citation for external sources. Any information from class notes may be cited as Class notes (date of lecture). Name of Video. Cite required external website using Chicago Advanced format. '''You may not use Wikipedia as a source.''' Please post answers on separate page and sign your entry. |
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| | + | Concepts: |
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| − | '''Concepts:'''
| + | [[1. Reasons for rise of Australopithecines]] |
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| − | '''Advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism'''
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| − | The advantages of being a biped is that it saves your energy, helps you see over things, and and gives you a better chance of survival and reproducing.
| + | [[2. Advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism]] |
| − | However, there are many disadvantages, like the fact that if you are standing high predators can see you much more easily. Also bipeds are much slower than quadrupeds
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| − | because they use two limbs instead of one.
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| | + | [[3. Australopithecus :lifestyle of Australopithecus]] |
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| − | '''Australopithecus Lifestyle'''
| + | [[4. Reasons for extinction of Australopithecus]] |
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| − | Australopithecus traveled in medium sized groups conveying that these animals were social. But the male specimens are much larger than the females (sexual dimorphism) indicating that there is a larger difference in the roles of males and females in the group. They had not yet developed tools but sometimes may have stumbled upon a twig and used it to eat termites, making them opportunistic animals. We can tell from their teeth that these creatures were, for the most part, vegetarians. Australopithecus was also pair-bonded, meaning they had a mate for life. They mainly slept in trees but occasionally would take shelter in a cave to get away from a predator or the rain.
| + | [[5. Characteristics of H. Habilis]] |
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| | + | [[6. Effects of Meat in diet]] |
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| − | '''Reasons for Extinction of Australopithecus'''
| + | [[7. Sweating]] |
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| − | Around one million BC, the Australopithecus became extinct purely because they failed to adapt to the increasingly competitive lifestyle on the African savanna. Although they lived along side the Homo habilis for probably 800,00, the Australopithecus were overtaken in the fight for survival. First they were passed by the herbivores such as gazelle and the horse, and then by the Homo. some sources say that the Homo fought off the Australopithecus, however that is not likely.
| + | [[8. Factors in Brain growth]] |
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| − | Helpful sources:
| + | [[9. Problems with large brain/solution]] |
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| − | Ch. 2 of manual (pg. 17)
| + | [[10. Characteristics of H. ergaster]] |
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| − | http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-11/uoca-vdo110606.php
| + | [[11. Differences with H. erectus]] |
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| | + | [[12. Climate and its effects]] |
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| − | '''Homo habilis Characteristics'''
| + | [[13. Glacial periods]] |
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| − | The Homo habilis developed on Earth 2.3 million years BC. These hominids had a 50% larger brain than the preceding australopithecines, and ate both plants and animals. This ancient creature is known for the ability to make tools, hinting his name the Homo "habilis", habilis meaning "handy man". Standing and average of only four feet tall, and weighing no more than 110 pounds, the Homo habilis were hardly a modern day human size. The teeth of the habilis were black, and smaller than the australopithecines. One of their most unique features was their ability to sweat. Sweating allowed them to keep their body temperature down, so they could hunt in the heat of day. The Homo habilis were a great step forward in the evolution of humans.
| + | [[14. Fire]] |
| − | Two helpful sources were the:
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| − | http://www2.sjs.org/beniretto/Origins (The origins section of the lab manual pg. 17)
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| − | https://www.msu.edu/~robin400/habilis.html
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| − | '''*Effects of Meat in diet'''
| + | [[15. Social development]] |
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| − | Meat in the diets of homo habilis helped them to grow and change over the years. The meat they ate gave more protein than the diet of Australopithecus, which helped increase homo habilis' brain size. This increase in mental capacity allowed them to develope the first type of tools: Achuelan tools. Although very simple, they helped homo habilis butcher the corpses of dead animals more effectively, getting them more meat, and in turn, more protein. There are also theories that meat helped with scoial interaction between the species, because when one animal had too much meat for one person, they could share it with fellow tribe members, making a strong bond in their community.
| + | [[16. H. heidelbergensis]] |
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| − | '''**Sweating'''
| + | [[17. Physical Characteristics of Neanderthals]] |
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| − | Anthropologists agree that the Homo Habilis adapted to their warm climate by sweating. It is quite possible that these early hominids chose to hunt and gather during the hottest part of the day, when the other large predators were resting. Over many thousands of years, this practice might have led to the adaptation of sweating. Homo sapiens swear more profusely than any other animals, even though their sweat glands are about the same size. Sweating provided the homo habilis with a solution to a high-temperature living life, since sweating keeps body temperature down.
| + | [[18. Neanderthal Tools]] |
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| − | However sweating also had a few restrictions. The steady loss of water meant that hominids had to live near areas that drinking water was accesible. Living nearby a water source became necessary for daily life and for hunting.
| + | [[19. Neanderthal Cultural life]] |
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| − | ''See P. 18 Manual''
| + | [[20. Neanderthal Mental development]] |
| − | '''''**Factors in Brain growth'''
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| − | There were many factors in the brain growth of ''H. Ergaster'' and ''H. Erectus''. Their diet began to include meat and the protein and nutrients from the meat gave their brains the necessary vitamins to grow and expand. Also, their means of getting food - hunting and scavenging - demanded more intelligence, to come up with tactics concerning how to find food and what is good to eat. Also, the actual actions of making primitive tools literally expanded the brain capacity. Lastly, the search for material for tools required memory, unlike just eating grass os picking leaves off a tree did. For more information, go to page 18 in the the manual.
| + | [[21. Characteristics of H. sapiens]] |
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| − | '''**Problems with large brain/solution'''
| + | [[22. H. sapiens Technology]] |
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| − | Gradually, the H. Ergaster and H. Erectus' brains began to enlarge and grow. Mothers gave birth to children that had less developed brains from birth which would later grow as they aged ("outside of the womb"). The problem, however, with these brains that grew with the human, was that the children were becoming dependent to their mothers for the first months of their lives while their brains were developed only a little. In their early stages, they were virtually helpless. This change required their society and behavior to shift as well. Before, the mothers cared for their young alone. Now, the male and female were both required to take care of their young. They began to work together, which eventually led to intricate relationships between the male, female and children. These more complex relationships eventually led to different social structures, and finally cultures and traditions. This was the main problem with the large brain of H. Ergasters and H. Erectus' and the solution. [[http://www2.sjs.org/Beniretto/Origins/Chapter%202.pdf]] Page 19.
| + | [[23.H. sapiens social organization]] |
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| − | '''H. ergaster/ H. erectus Characteristics'''
| + | [[24. Cooperation and its Effects]] |
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| − | 1.9 million years ago, another species of Homo named Homo Ergaster (the worker) emerged in Africa. This species is also known as Homo Erectus, which is sometimes used for later populations in Asia. Homo Ergaster had a rounded cranium and a prominent brow ridge. Its teeth were also reduced in size. Several features that distinguish H.Ergaster from H. Erectus are thinner bones of the skull and the lack of an obvious sulcus (a depressing just behind the brow ridge). The average was measured 950cc to H. habilis 800cc. Using this improved mental capability, H. Ergaster took to the art of tool making beyond just chipping rocks. They developed the ability to make symmetrical pear-shaped hand axes. They made it easier for H. Ergaster to butcher carcasses of meat and clean the flesh off the hide. The sharing of this meat also allowed relationships to develop in the community. They also used different sounds to communicate with each other. Food also led to conflict between H. Ergaster. They fought over food and mates more often then other species.
| + | [[25. H. sapiens Communication/Art]] |
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| − | '''**Climate and its effects'''
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| − | From about two million BC to 8,000 BC, it was not particularly comfortable anywhere in the world. Variations in the Earth's orbit and constant shifts in the shapes of the continent caused a constantly-changing climate, alternating between ice ages and warmer periods called interglacial, alternating every hundred thousand years. During an interglacial, such as as one we are experiencing today, the regions near the equator experienced frequent rainfall, and the southern and northern parts of the world experienced temperate climates. Each 9interglacial period eventually grew colder, and ice spread to the south until it covered to Europe and North America. Northern Asia was free of ice because because it lacked rain. Then after a few thousand or even a few hundred years, the glacial period reached a peak and was replaced by a new interglacial period, and they cycle repeated.
| + | [[26.H. sapiens other advances]] |
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| − | '''* Glacial periods'''
| + | [[27. Explain the multiregional hypothesis]] |
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| − | In the year 16000 BCE, about the time the most recent Ice Age was at its climax, parts of North America and Europe reached temperatures as much as 65˚F lower than they are now. Between one-third and one quarter of the Earth's land surface was covered in ice, sometimes two miles deep. Significant changes in Earth's geography and climate occurred because so much of the water was locked up in these ice sheets. Sea level dropped dramatically, by about 410 ft, uncovering boundless areas of what was seabed before. The effects were huge, from rainfall levels plummeting to whole bodies of water drying up to a huge new continent emerging in Southeast Asia. Also, vegetation was scattered by fierce winds. Because of all that, Earth's vegetation belts moved much closer to the Equator than they are currently. Human beings were compelled to adapt their lifestyles to the mass of effects the glacial periods had on the world. In the process, they developed hunting strategies that allowed them to survive the Ice Age.
| + | [[28. Explain the diffusionism/ Out of Africa hypothesis]] |
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| − | '''Fire'''
| + | [[29. H. Sapiens are the Only Hominid Left. Why?]] |
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| − | Human Evolution experienced a 1.5 million year pause until ''Homo Ergaster'' discovered fire. The exact date of the discovery of fire is not known. The discovery of fire enabled hominids to migrate to the colder climates of Europe, Asia, and beyond. By 300,000 B.C., ''Homo Heidelbergensis'' was using fire to drive large game to the edges of cliffs and other areas that made it easier for them to make a kill. The discovery of fire sparked new advances in human evolution, leading eventually to ''Homo Sapiens'', or modern humans. An excellent source for fire can be found in the Manual [[http://www2.sjs.org/beniretto/Origins/Chapter%202.pdf]] Page 22.
| + | [[30. H. sapiens were able to settle in such diverse habitats. Give reasons and rationale.]] |
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| − | '''**Social development'''
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| − | When hominids started giving birth to babies whose brains had to do most growing outside of the womb, children could no longer be raised only by their mother, because they were much more dependent, especially during the first years of their lives. Men and women had to work together to bring up the children, which required building relationships. The more dependent young also created the system of men hunting and scavenging away from their home, while women stayed closer to the babies and looked for vegetables to gather.
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| − | '''H. heidelbergensis'''
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| − | The H. heidelbergensis existed during about 800,000 BC to 300,000 BC and were nomadic, usually in bands of 20-30 individuals. There were about 40,000 groups like this in the world, which would mean that there were less than a million people existing in the whole world! More people than that live in Houston right now. They also started to use fire as a tool to drive big game off of cliffs in order to more easily slaughter them. This showed that the H. heidelbergensis were more developed then their previous ancestors, the H. erectus and the H. ergaster.
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| − | '''Characteristics of Neanderthal'''
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| − | The physical characteristics of the Neanderthal differ in many subtle ways from our own. Their skull was structured differently, with a dense, overhanging brow ridge followed by a long, flat skullcap, eventually terminating in a "bulging, bun-like cranium". Their lower jaw was thrust forward to facilitate the use of large, powerful front teeth, they used these teeth for a variety of practical purposes, including but not limited to chewing animal hide to render it more supple or holding pieces of wood so that they could use both hands to carve or chop them. They had broad, flat noses, superimposed on a forward-thrust face structure. This was very important to their survival since they lived in such cold places: the large nasal cavities warmed air before it entered the lungs, while a dense slab of bone kept it away from the brain, and it also prevented them from overheating while running, because sweat would probably freeze in their environment. Their physique also helped them keep warm: they had short extremities and a barrel- chested frame, with lots of extra muscle and bones 10-20 percent heavier than ours. They weighed anywhere up to 225 lbs. Their lifestyle of walking many miles a day while bearing heavy loads lent them massive upper body strength and a hand-grip 2-3 times more powerful than ours.
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| − | '''''Tools'''''
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| − | '''Oldowan Tools'''
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| − | Oldowan tools are the oldest known tools in history. These stone tools date as far back as 2.5 million years ago.
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| − | '''Acheulean Tools'''
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| − | About 1.6 million years ago, Acheulean tools were the most sophisticated objects on the planet. They were first manufactured by Homo erectus.
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| − | '''Neanderthals'''
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| − | Neanderthals further refined tools. They used a new, advanced technique to make these tools, known as the prepared core method. This method required them to knock the top off of a round rock, thus producing a disk-shaped core. They could then produce 2 or 3 almost identical flakes from this core. These tools were used for attacking large mammals, such as horses and mammoth, which they killed in large, pre-planned hunts. Neanderthal's tools mainly consisted of knives or hand axes.
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| − | Sources:
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| − | Chapter 2 Page 24 of Manual
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| − | http://www2.sjs.org/Beniretto/Origins/Chapter%202.pdf
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| − | '''**Cultural life'''
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| − | The Neanderthal culture was richer than that of their predecessors. Some groups honored particular animals, amassing large collections of their bones and burying them in one pit, covered with a stone slab. Bears were a very popular animal to honor. Also, they took great care of each other if they were injured, healing broken bones and other injuries in each other and feeding and caring for the blind and crippled (the old man of Shanidar).
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| − | '''**Mental development'''
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| − | Neanderthals were the first to recognize and ceremoniously utilize the respectful burial. The body would be laid on a mat of natural materials and then strewn with flowers. The flowers, grape hyacinth, hollyhock,and cornflower, are still used in Iraqi herbal remedies, thus suggesting they were a symbolic medicinal aid for the afterlife. However, they had no interest in art, and never saw the practical use of animal bone as a tool-making material. Also, they never showed interest in traveling anywhere outside their immediate vicinity.
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| − | '''[[Characteristics of Homo Sapiens]]'''
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| − | '''technology'''
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| − | Technology was the Aurignacians' first major revolution. They were the first people to make tools in order to make other tools. They were able to make long, elongated sharp razor edges, but also as well as small 3/4 inch "micro-flints" for precision work. Aurignacians also made a variety of tools for special uses, from scrapers for cleaning hides to burins for engraving antler bones. This society was know as 'blade and burin'. The tools became more and more common place when these tool-makers developed the technique of annealing, which involved heating the flint up, and therefore making it more workable. This was usually done by putting flint is very warm sand. Another innovation was producing composite tools, which were stone tools glued by tree resin to wooden handles, giving the user a firmer grip.
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| − | '''**blade and burin society'''
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| − | The blade and burin society was a society based on the technological advancement of the blade and burin tools. Blades were made from flint by hammering at the weakest area of a piece of flint, creating sharp, serrated edges. Burins were miniature, pointy blades used for engraving bones and horns or antlers. The Aurignacians, a technologically advanced group of homo sapiens, lived off of the blade and burin method.
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| − | '''**Weapons'''
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| − | H. Sapiens were the first to use weapons that could kill from a distance. This provided more safety, allowing the Sapiens to live more prosperously. They also devised new strategies, allowing them to kill animals in much greater numbers. Examples of weapons used were harpoons, spears, and staffs.
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| − | '''**social organization'''
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| − | The Aurignacians were the first to use the concept of Shamanism. One person would be selected to communicate with the other cosmos besides theirs. The two sets of cosmos coexisted with each other and the shaman was used to cure the sick, maintain a good relationship with the other world, restore lost harmony, etc. Also, the Aurignacians were the first artists and the first dynamic innovators.
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| − | The Gravettians lived in small groups who went off on hunting-gathering expeditions of different varieties. One group might go on a very long expedition for meat while another might search for nuts and vegetables closer to home. Their settlements were also more permanent than other civilizations because all the small groups would have one base camp that they would all return to. They also developed the concept of dispersed leadership. There was no strong sense of privacy.
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| − | The Magdalenians had no wish to separate the dead from the living. Graves were dug in the cave and hut floors. The dead were also covered in red ochre as a symbol of life giving blood and color. There also must have been a sense of tribal community among the Magdalenians because they lived in dwellings very close to one another.
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| − | The Natufians lived both the hunting and farming lifestyles. They lived in "base camps", subterranean one room structures.
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| − | For more information, see pages 26-31 in the manual
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| − | '''**dispersed leadership'''
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| − | Dispersed Leadership was used by ''highly egalitarian'' groups, who had no leaders. Dispersed Leadership recognizes the talents and experience of each person in the group. All the decisions were made together, and there was no sense of privacy, so all the grievances were public and settled without a fight. The notion of private property was alien to the hunter-gatherer. The most helpful source was http://www2.sjs.org/Beniretto/Origins/Chapter%202.pdf page 29, under Development of Social Organization
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| − | '''**[[cooperation and its effects]]'''
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| − | '''**communication/art'''
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| − | Aurignacians were the first artists with cave art dating from 32 thousand years ago to 27 thousand years ago. Magdalenians were the best artists though. Some of their oldest examples of cave work was found by chance. Located under a fallen tree, the paintings mixed with earlier paintings probably left by the Aurignacians. The Magdalenians were very careful of the artwork that was already there. The Gravettians were the first to create the "Venus" statue/image. The Dolni Vestonice Venus was about 4.5 inches tall and about 14 thousand years old. It was part of the oldest known set of ceramic sculptures and was fired by one of the very first kilns.
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| − | '''Other advances'''
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| − | Some other advances were cultural ones. The dead were either buried in the house, as to be close to the living, or very close to it. They were often buried with medicinal flowers or other herbs. Another advance was in technology, where the Aurignacians were the first ones to make tools to make tools. The early humans also became a lot more religious, burying the dead's tools with them so they could have them in the afterlife. Perhaps one of the most important advances was in the area of clothes, which were starting to be crudely sewn together with primitive needles.
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| − | '''Explain both the multiregional and diffusionism/ Out of Africa hypotheses'''
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| − | The multiregional hypothesis says that homo sapiens evolved somewhat simultaneously in Africa, Europe, and Asia with some mixing between the regions. This means that present day people from a certain region evolved from the population of Homo erectus that lived in that region thousands of years ago. What supports this is the similarity of some of the anatomical structures of modern humans of a certain region and the Homo erectus that lived in the same region thousands of years ago.
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| − | The Out of Africa Hypothesis says that a small group of early humans evolved into Homo sapiens in Africa and that population eventually spread across all of Africa, Asia, and Europe. As they spread, they were so successful that all other hominid species died out. There is mitochondrial evidence for a time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern humans and it dates back to around 200,000 years ago, making it too young for the Multiregional Hypothesis.
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| − | An excellent source for showing the different origin models is http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_4.htm
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| − | '''H. sapiens is the only hominid left. Why?'''
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| − | Homo Sapiens were able to out perform other hominids due to their superior brain structure, ability to adapt, and physical qualities. Most notably, their ability to control fire and make more advanced tools allowed them to survive. At the time, Neanderthals were the best off. Perfectly adapted to their ice-age surroundings, the neanderthals had no need to innovate. Meanwhile, the Homo.Sapien was doing his best to survive and in doing so, became more creative. When the climate changed, the Neanderthals were suddenly in surroundings that they were not prepared for. They were perfectly adapted for their ice-age surroundings, but when it came to the new climate, they were in trouble. The Homo.Sapiens on the other hand, were able to adapt and survive.
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| − | '''H. sapiens were able to settle in such diverse habitats. Give reasons and rationale.'''
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| − | Homo sapiens had differently organized brains (in contrast to Neanderthals), sophisticated tools, and a curious and innovative spirit. These equipped the Homo sapiens with the necessary talents and skills to successfully adapt to any environment. With these advantages, they gradually replaced all other hominid species. Another of their advantages was they were not perfectly adapted to their environment. As shown by the Australopithecus Bosei, being completely adapted to your habitat is not always a good thing. The Australopithecus Bosei had large, tough teeth which were perfect for eating the tough, dry grasses that were abundant all over Africa during the Ice Age. Being perfectly adapted, they stopped evolving. When the Ice Age ended and water came back to Africa and the grass became green and easy to chew they became extinct because they no longer had an advantage over other hominid species. To become extinct one does not have to fail, one just has to succeed less often. Homo sapiens, while not perfectly suited for any environment, could evolve quickly and adapted the environment to suit their needs. Also, the organization of our brain allowed us to understand the seasons and the migration routes of animal herds. Many small advantages when combined add up to the difference between going extinct and populating the world.
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| − | '''Id The Aurignacians'''
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| − | The Aurignacians, named for Aurignac region of France, appear in Afghanistan, Iran, and the Levant, and they spread westward later through central Europe and the Balkans. They are probably the first artists. Several new techniques in tools and a diverse variety of tools along with more advanced projectile points mark the Aurignacians as the first dynamic innovators. They may have had dogs that helped them. Another innovation might have been shamanism since early man believed in a complex world with two or more worlds coexisting. They were the first to make tools for making tools.
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| − | Source: Manual pgs. 28-29
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| − | '''ID Gravettians'''
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| − | The Gravettians, modern humans, lived from 27TYA - 18TYA. They lived in France near the mountain range bordering Spain. Although region was extremely cold, the Gravettians were well adpated. They made huts made of mammoth bones with animal skins stretched over them to keep warm. They created traps, darts, baskets, and nets to help them catch all different ranges of animals. They even invented bone needles to sew and an early form of a loom to weave. With all these new creations, the population of the Gravettians began to grow and the people lived longer too. They had quite an organized social structure called dispersed leadership. Each person's talents or wisdom was used for the benefit of the whole community and they all made the decisions together. These people lived in semi-permanent villages. The people would split up in different directions to hunt while others would stay to gather food from their surroundings. This way of living separates these Homo sapiens from past hominids. However, they are known the most for their ceramics. They were mainly of woman who archaeologists today call, Venus. This was the first time people began to use fire for non practical decorative objects instead of protection and food. With the Gravettians, we can see many new ideals emerging.
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| − | '''ID Magdalenians'''
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| − | The Magdalenians were on Earth from about eighteen thousand years ago to ten thousand years ago. They were mainly reindeer hunters. The best artists are found from the Magdalenian culture.
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| − | The Magdalenians began to solve problems. They did not do exactly what their parents did before them. They invented the atlatl, a variety of barbed spears and harpoons, a fat burning lamp. The Magdalenians favored caves for their dwellings. The Magdaleniansc buried their dead in the cave and hut floors. They where sometimes placed in a crouching position, depending on if the body was dressed and ornamented. They where often covered in red ochre, the symbol of life giving blood or cover. The Magdalenian hunters clothing were stitched and cut. The Magdalenians talked, ate, mended their gear, and told stories. This shows that they were modern humans with a language
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| − | (CF Manual p 29-31)
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| − | [http://www.theapricity.com/snpa/chapter-II10.htm] is a great website if you would like to learn more.
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| − | '''Natufians'''
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| − | The Natufians are the transitional group between hunter-gatherers and farmers. “The Natufians provide us with a perfect example of the way of life intermediate between that of the hunters and the farmer.” (CF Manual p31) “The Natufian culture is the name given to the sedentary hunter-gatherers living in the Levant region of the near east between about 12,500 and 10,200 years ago.” (CF Manual p31) The Natufians were hunter-gatherers, hunting for food such as emmer wheat, barley, and almonds, and hunting gazelle, deer, cattle, horse, and wild boar. Natufian people lived in communities for part of the year. The semi-circular one-room buildings that they lived in were built partly in the soil and made of stone, wood, and possibly brush roofs. Jericho, Ain Mallaha, and Wadi Hammeh 27 are the largest Natufian base camps.
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| − | Artifacts:
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| − | Artifacts found include grinding stones, dried meats and fish, and ochre. Flint and bone tools as well as dentalium shell ornaments were also found. There is scarce evidence found that the Natufian people may have grown barley
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| − | For more information see class notes on Friday.
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| − | '''What effect did settling down have on the species?'''
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| − | The settling down of groups of people not only provided free time experimenting with things like art and religion, but provided liesure time to create new technology that would further improve their quality of life. Also, the settling down of different groups allowed for the creation of extensive trade networks, as their position was fixed and could be found easily. Finally, the settling down near agriculturally fertile areas allowed for more daily food intake and a healthy diet that improved nutrition and overall health.
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