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| | Return to Main Page [[History 8]] | | Return to Main Page [[History 8]] |
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| − | Work must be supported with citation of source. Manual may be noted with CF Manual and page number(s). Any information from class notes may be cited as Class notes (date of lecture). Name of Video. '''You may not use Wikipedia as a source.''' Please sign your entry. | + | Work must be supported with citation of source. Manual may be noted with Manual and page number(s). Be sure to use Noodletools citation for external sources. Any information from class notes may be cited as Class notes (date of lecture). Name of Video. Cite required external website using Chicago Advanced format. '''You may not use Wikipedia as a source.''' Please post answers on separate page and sign your entry. |
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| | Concepts: | | Concepts: |
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| − | ==1. Reasons for rise of Australopithecines==
| + | [[1. Reasons for rise of Australopithecines]] |
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| − | The australopithecines lived around 5-6 million years age and disappeared in one million BC. The following reasons describe the rise of the australopithecines:
| + | [[2. Advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism]] |
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| − | -Six million years ago, the jungles in Africa became to dried out and the forests shrunk. This caused both a crisis in food and habitat availability. Some primates were forced out onto the now open grassland. A large number of theses primates did not survive, however the ones who did devised and gained new techniques for survival.
| + | [[3. Australopithecus :lifestyle of Australopithecus]] |
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| − | -As life in the savannah moved on, the australopithecines became equipped with natural defenses. They used their hands to hurl stones and sticks. Throughout the years, the australopithecines gained a substantial skeletal, which helped improve their stance. They also acquired an opposable thumb grip, which made it easier to grasp and throw things.
| + | [[4. Reasons for extinction of Australopithecus]] |
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| − | -The hip joints were modified, causing the legs to align with the backbone. The knees grew closer together to help bear the total weight of the body. The feet became more arched and the ankles became stronger. The big toe became more aligned with the other toes, allowing the feet to take the full weight of the body.
| + | [[5. Characteristics of H. Habilis]] |
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| − | link on more background information about the australopithecines: http://www.stanford.edu/~harryg/protected/chp18.htm
| + | [[6. Effects of Meat in diet]] |
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| − | CF:Pages 20-21
| + | [[7. Sweating]] |
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| − | -Grace Amandes
| + | [[8. Factors in Brain growth]] |
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| − | ==2. Advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism==
| + | [[9. Problems with large brain/solution]] |
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| − | -Advantages include being able to throw well in order to ward off predators, and being able to carry multiple items in two hands, not just in one's mouth. Chimps have the ability to stand upright, but they use an abnormally large amount of energy to keep their balance. The way the human skeleton is constructed can save energy while gathering food and traveling around on foot, and this saved energy can go into growth and population. Humans evolved to be able to walk and run long distances and hunt meat, which are definitely advantages.
| + | [[10. Characteristics of H. ergaster]] |
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| − | -At the same time, the disadvantages include speed: using four limbs to move is quite a bit more efficient. Bipeds are also plagued with pain in their backs, feet, and joints because the act of walking shifts muscles and bones in new ways and they have to absorb the shocks of striking the ground. Also, unfortunately, modern humans do not have stability, or the ability of grasping things with our feet.
| + | [[11. Differences with H. erectus]] |
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| − | -While there are definitely both advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism, in my opinion the ability to stand upright is essential, for without it, humans wouldn't be able to dance, and the enjoyment of that art is critical to society, both future and past.
| + | [[12. Climate and its effects]] |
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| − | Sources:
| + | [[13. Glacial periods]] |
| − | History Manual pg. 21
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| − | [[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/bipedal-body/ackerman-text/12]] | + | [[14. Fire]] |
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| − | -Libby Carr
| + | [[15. Social development]] |
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| − | ==3. Australopithecus :lifestyle of Australopithecus==
| + | [[16. H. heidelbergensis]] |
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| − | -The earliest Australopithecus, abundant in Africa, lived around five to six million years ago and disappeared from the earth around one million BC(CF 20-21). This species was the first of our pre-human ancestors to be discovered and there were many different types of this species, but was later rejected from the human family tree because of its small size brain(CF 20-21). The fossils of the first bipeds showed the huge number of anatomical changes from their ancestors.
| + | [[17. Physical Characteristics of Neanderthals]] |
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| − | -Not much is known about the lifestyle of Australopithecus because they left behind no artifacts such as tools(Australian Museum). However, we still know a bit about their lifestyle. One of the clues that we have interpreted about their lifestyle is that on the savanna, much of the food is underground. Hominids that had more dexterity were able to use some form of digging stick to access the food(CF 20-21). This suggests that they used some simple tools such as sticks or rocks, but they did not modify them, making it hard to identify them as tools this species used(Australian Museum). We can also infer that they ate lots of coarse plant and vegetables by their large molars, ideal for grinding these types of food(CF 20-21). During the day, they stayed on the grasslands and lake-sides of Africa. It also seems likely that they lived in small social groups of males and females(Australian Museum). These are a few facts that we have been able to infer from fossils about the lifestyle and general information about the species Australopithecus.
| + | [[18. Neanderthal Tools]] |
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| − | Link with more information: http://australianmuseum.net.au/Australopithecus-afarensis/
| + | [[19. Neanderthal Cultural life]] |
| − | (Australian Museum)
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| − | CF: Pages 20-21
| + | [[20. Neanderthal Mental development]] |
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| − | -Grayson Christ
| + | [[21. Characteristics of H. sapiens]] |
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| − | ==4. Reasons for extinction of Australopithecus==
| + | [[22. H. sapiens Technology]] |
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| − | -The Australopithecus went extinct around one million B.C.
| + | [[23.H. sapiens social organization]] |
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| − | -Australopithecus, latin for southern ape, are ancestors of the modern humans. They existed in Africa with the Homo Habilis for about 800,000 years. While some species were growing in size and strength, the Australopithecus were becoming extinct because they couldn't adapt to the harsh society/life in the savannas of Africa. Even though they were bipedal, meaning they walked on two legs, they had very small brains which did not help them as a species. The gazelle, the orynx, the horse, and the early Homo overshadowed the Australopithecus and they slowly died out about one million B.C..
| + | [[24. Cooperation and its Effects]] |
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| − | Works Cited:
| + | [[25. H. sapiens Communication/Art]] |
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| − | "Reasons for Extinction." Origins. Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations. Comp. Rosie Beniretto and Clay Elliot. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John's School, 2012. 21-21. Print.
| + | [[26.H. sapiens other advances]] |
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| − | McHenry, Henry, IV. "Australopithecus." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 17 Sept. 2012. <http://m.eb.com/topic/44115>.
| + | [[27. Explain the multiregional hypothesis]] |
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| − | By: Camille Dawson
| + | [[28. Explain the diffusionism/ Out of Africa hypothesis]] |
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| | + | [[29. H. Sapiens are the Only Hominid Left. Why?]] |
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| − | ==5. Characteristics of H. Habilis==
| + | [[30. H. sapiens were able to settle in such diverse habitats. Give reasons and rationale.]] |
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| − | The ''Homo habilis'' species first emerged about 2.3 million years BC and ended about 1.5 million years BC. The following characteristics of a ''Homo habilis'' are stated below.
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| − | -The ''Homo habilis'' weighed around 110 pounds and had a height of four feet tall. The size of the ''Homo habilis'' was rather not astonishing, but there brains size was incredibly large in comparison to the australopithecine. The brain of a ''Homo habilis'' was 800 cc or 800 cubic centimeters, much larger than the previous brain size ranging from 440 cc to 650 cc held by the Australopithecines. This increase in brain size was about 50 percent.
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| − | -The ''Homo habilis'' also had a more rounded and larger skull to help hold the much larger brain. Also a forehead started to appear and facial projection was reduced. Along with that, the spinal cord was located in the center of the skull, allowing the the ''Homo habilis'' to stand straight up.
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| − | -The jaw was smaller than previous species and the teeth were located in an arc like formation. Also teeth were smaller and less jagged than those of a predator but sharper than those of a herbivore, implying that the ''Homo habilis'' ate meat and plants.
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| − | -The legs of the ''Homo habilis'' were relatively short, relating the ''Homo habilis'' to an ape like creature with the ability to walk on two feet. Also fingers were aligned so that gripping and throwing objects was easier.
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| − | -The ''Homo habilis'' was also an Omnivore. An omnivore eats meat and plants, Omni meaning all and vore meaning to eat. The ''Homo habilis'' needed another source of food rather than plants to help power their much larger brain and meat was the only other option, but obtaining meat was not easy. Due to the fact that the ''Homo habilis'' did not have the characteristics of a natural born killer he had to scavenge of off the remains of dead animals.
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| − | -The ''Homo habilis'' also created tools to help with daily life. One tool is a knife like rock created by chipping away at a stone. This sharp tool and weapon allowed the ''Homo habilis'' to cut through tough tissues to reach the meat of a dead animal. This is an example of how the ''Homo habilis'' adapted to help survive in the harsh environment.
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| − | sources
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| − | CF: Page 22
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| − | Dorey, Fran (2009) ''Homo habilis''. Australian Museum:http://australianmuseum.net.au/Homo-habilis/
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| − | By: Gregory Estrera
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| − | ==6. Effects of Meat in diet==
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| − | ==7. Sweating==
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| − | Merriam-Webster’s dictionary states that sweating is to excrete moisture in visible quantities through the openings of the sweat glands. There are over two and a half million sweat glands all over individual’s bodies. The most common areas to sweat are the palms, forehead, soles of the feet, and armpits. This is due to the fact that there is an abundance of sweat glands in those areas. Sweat is made up of a mixture of 99% water and 1% salt and fat, and about one quart of liquid a day evaporates through the process of sweating. When a person’s body becomes hot, they will begin the process of sweating, cooling the body. Also, when individuals are nervous or under tremendous pressure, they will begin to sweat. There are advantages and disadvantages of sweating. The disadvantage is that is causes you to loose some of the water in your body that you need, but an advantage is that sweat is able to cool down your body when doing very active things. According to the textbook, the Homo habilis depended on sweating to cool them off when hunting large resting predators during the hottest part of the day. It is amazing that humans sweat more than any other mammal even though their sweat glands are the same size as other them.
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| − | Works Cited:
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| − | ''Manuel page 23:''
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| − | “Early Hominids.” Origins. Manuel for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations. Comp. Clay Elliot and Rosie Beniretto. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John’s School, 2012. 20-51. Print.
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| − | ''Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary:''
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| − | “Sweat.” Merriam-Webster. 2012. Merriam-Webster. Web. 17 Sept. 2012. <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sweat>.
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| − | ''Online Article:''
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| − | “Sweating.” Penn Medicine. A. D. A. M., 2012. Web. 17 Sept. 2012. <http://www.pennmedicine.org/encyclopedia/em_DisplayAnimation.aspx?gcid=000127&ptid=17>.
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| − | -Katie Malcolm
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| − | ==8. Factors in Brain growth==
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| − | There were many factors in brain growth of the Homo Habilis such as the need for more intelligence, an increase in protein in the diet, and a level of deftness that also served to increase brain size. Homo Habilis was a scavenger and a hunter. Scavenging and hunting requires more brain capacity than picking berries or eating grass. Homo Habilis was also a carnivore, also known as an animal that eats meat. Meat has an abundance of protein, which helps the brain grow. Lastly, when Homo Habilis began to make tools, they had a certain level of deftness. That level of deftness also helped Homo Habilis perform more complex tasks which, in turn, increased the brain size.
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| − | Source: History Manual pages 23 and 24
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| − | -Jared Margolis
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| − | ==9. Problems with large brain/solution==
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| − | Problems:
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| − | There was a need for higher intelligence for...
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| − | *the making of tools
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| − | *imagining these tools made out of stone
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| − | *creating languages
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| − | *makeing rules
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| − | Greater intelligence meant growth in brain size)
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| − | The head grew to accommodate the new brain size and the pelvis became wider and if it became any wider then the hominid would not be able to fit through the emale birthing canal.
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| − | -Solution:
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| − | The bipedalism or brain growth would have to be sacrificed.
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| − | http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu04.html
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| − | CF page 24
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| − | Louisa Morgan
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| − | ==10. Characteristics of H. ergaster==
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| − | H. ergaster (man the worker) emerged about 1.9 million years ago in Africa, this species was one of the first to have babies that depended on the parents for about the first 6 years of their lives. This change cause males and females to maintain relationships for longer amounts of time. H. ergaster were the among the first Africans, they had rounded heads, and their teeth were much smller compared to the Austrolopithecus.
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| − | Pages: 24-25 in Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations; Volume 1
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| − | Julia Parsley
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| − | ==11. differences with H. erectus==
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| − | Distinguishing characteristics of H. ergaster from H. erectus are that thinner bones in the skull and a less noticeable depression behind the bowridge. The average brain now measured 950 mm, and this improved physical and mental growth. H. ergaster thought of how to make pear shaped tools by chipping rocks, making it much easier to butcher animals.
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| − | Page: 25 in Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilization; Volume 1
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| − | Julia Parsley
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| − | ==12. Climate and its effects==
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| − | The unwelcoming world from 2 million BC to 8,000 BC caused setbacks for many creatures, especially early hominids. The main changes that occurred were sporadic alterations in Earth’s orbit and transforming continents. The combination of the two fueled constant climate change between ice ages and interglacials. The warmer intermediary periods entailed constant rainfall in equatorial regions while providing mild climate to most everywhere else. Eventually, these interglacials turned extremely cold until restarting the vicious cycle again. During ice ages, average temperatures were 65 degrees lower in areas of North America and Europe. Also, between one-third and one-quarter of the Earth was covered in ice. To add even more problems, during the ice ages rainfall levels dropped substantially, bestowing severe winds that scattered rock debris, dust, and vegetation. The hominids living during this time period did not have it easy as a result of the climate and its effects
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| − | Source:
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| − | History Manual Page 26
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| − | -Daniel Perrier
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| − | ==13. Glacial periods==
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| − | The last ice age peaked around 16,000 BCE, and during that time, about one-third to one-quarter of land on Earth was under sheets of ice. More land was covered in ice in the Northern Hemisphere than the Southern Hemisphere because the Southern Hemisphere consisted of more ocean than land.
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| − | Significant land changes occurred during the glacial period: the islands of Indonesia connected together by the Sunda to form one united landmass and a land bridge called Beringia joined Siberia and Alaska. In addition, the Antarctic ice sheet became thicker and spread north, sea level dropped to expose seabed, rainfall levels decreased, and strong gusts of wind blew dust, called loess, debris, and vegetation.
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| − | The vegetation didn't flourish while the Ice Age occurred because of the constant ice pressure and hard weather. The lush vegetation of different areas became arctic tundra and treeless steppe.
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| − | Although the climate was tough, ''H. ergaster'' survived and adapted to the changing surroundings and resources well. They learned to hunt and make shelter out of twigs. Because of their survival skills, they didn't go extinct during the Ice Age.
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| − | Information about glacial periods:
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| − | When a glacial period is not taking place, the Earth is in a intermediary warm period called interglacials.
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| − | Interglacial periods have higher sea levels because the ice melted.
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| − | This is a good link to more information about glaciers, glaciation, and glacial periods. Scroll down to "Glacial Ages" on that webpage for information about glacial periods. The author of this information is Prof. Stephen A. Nelson of Tulane University. <http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/glaciers.htm>.
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| − | Sources:
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| − | Nelson, Stephen A. "Glaciers and Glaciation." ''Tulane University.'' Tulane University, 27 Oct. 2003. Web. 19 Sept. 2012. <http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/glaciers.htm>.
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| − | "Glacial Periods." ''Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations.'' By Rosie Beniretto and Clay Elliott. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John's School, 2012. 26-27. Print.
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| − | Maddie Shen
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| − | ==14. Fire==
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| − | Homo ergaster's most important discovery was how to use fire. The date when H. ergaster learned how to harness fire is unknown. What is known is that H. ergaster lived in the chiller zones of Europe as well as Africa, and H. erectus lived in China, so as hominids moved to colder continents away from their native Africa, fire became essential in survival. Fire provided warmth to survive the cold winters of Eastern Europe. By 300,000 BC, the nomadic Homo heidelbergensis began using fire to hunt. They would use the fire to drive big animals over cliffs or into areas where it would be easier to slaughter it. Fire also could cook meat and make it more tender, expanding their diet as well as killing off any harmful bacteria, lengthening their lifespan. Fire also gave man the ability to dry meat, preparing it for storage to use when food became scarce. Man learned fire was for protection as well as hunting or cooking. All animals except humans were afraid of fire. This created a barrier between man and his enemies.
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| − | Fire also played an important role in social development. As these humans began to gather around the fire and bond and spend time together, the need for a spoken language arose. A language would be far more clear and descriptive then gestures or symbols. Therefore fire was key in the development of language. All the affects of fire led to increase of brain size, making man smarter and more innovative. Considering how much fire contributed in the lives of early humans, it may be the most important breakthrough it the history of man.
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| − | Works Cited
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| − | “Chapter 2: Origins - Early Hominids.” 2012. Manuel for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations. Comp. Rosie Beniretto and Clay Elliot. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John’s School, 2012. 20-28. Print.
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| − | McKenna, Ryan. “Fire and Its Value to Early Man.” Human Nature, Technology and the Environment. Swarthmore College, 6 Feb. 2007. Web. 23 Sept. 2012. <http://fubini.swarthmore.edu/~ENVS2/S2007/rmckenn1/FirstEssay.htm>.
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| − | -Bailey Slawin
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| − | ==15. Social development==
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| − | Social Development exploded when fire was found and harnessed. It let families grow closer to each other with the rise of communication and leaders started to form in the groups forming social classes.
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| − | Also, social development emerged with the demand of taking care of your helpless children which could be a meal for predators and the clinging of the children to the mother. This made the males the primary source for killing and scavenging away from home.While the close to home gathering fell upon the women. Also, the hunters started to bring food back to the group to share with their families, groups or they shared with who they wanted their mate to be.
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| − | Works Cited-
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| − | "Walking with Cavemen" video
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| − | "Social aspects of Homo erectus." Helium. Vonda J. Sines, 5 Sept. 2012. Web. 24 Sept. 2012. <http://www.helium.com/items/1180969-social-habits-of-homo-erectus>.
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| − | Beniretto, Rosie, and Clay Elliot. "Chapter 2: Origins." Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John's School, 2012. N. pag. Print.
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| − | - Peter Stone
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| − | ==16. H. heidelbergensis==
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| − | Homo Heidelbergensis, a South African and European species named after the University of Heidelberg, is one of our closest ancestors and a very valuable part of human intuition. Most fossils found for these fossils date them at 500,000 years ago. The average size of a Homo Heidelbergensis was 6 feet, and the brain size was 1400 cubic centimeters. That’s more then our brains by 50 cm. You might ask yourself then, “what did this species use their extra brain power for? The answer is split into two, as the entire Species had done in the past. When what is known as the Neanderthals in Europe became the European Heidelbergensis, and the Homo ergaster became the African Heidelbergensis. These people were both faced with harsh environments: one with a drought, and one with severe cold. Luckily, they were well equipped to survive. The Heidelbergensis were the first to make a simple language, master fire, express themselves with art, and create shelter. However, these were not things that were discovered through natural selection. The Homo Heidelbergensis came up with these ideas through Intuition, or the ability of having quick insight. This served to be a way of cutting down the time of natural selection by being able to adapt to new environments. The African Heidelbergensis, faced with heat, buried eggs filled with water in order to ensure their hydration on a return trip. They also utilized natural shade to protect them from heat, as well as shade made by shelters. These adaptations gave the Heidelbergensis more time to think, leading to more art, the beginning of musical expression, and the beginning of modern language. This is why the Homo Heidelbergensis comes down in history as being one of the closest relatives of Homo Sapiens.
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| − | Works Cited:
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| − | Neal, Dennis O. "Evolution of Modern Humans: Homo Heidelbergensis." Evolution of Modern Humans: Homo Heidelbergensis. Palomar, 2012. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_1.htm>.
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| − | "Homo Heidelbergensis." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 2012. Web. 23 Sept. 2012. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/h/homo_heidelbergensis.htm>.
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| − | Beniretto, Rosie, and Clay Elliot. "Chapter 2: Origins." Manual for Cultural Foundations of Ancient Civilizations. Vol. 1. Houston: St. John's School, 2012. N. pag. Print.
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| − | -Max Westmark
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| − | ==17. Characteristics of Neandertal==
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| − | ==**18. Tools==
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| − | ==19. Cultural life==
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| − | The culture of the Neandertals was very sophisticated. They used tools, kept fire controlled, created shelters, made and wore clothing, and created symbolic art. They also were very skilled in the art of hunting, which allowed them to survive. Another distinguishing characteristic is that they buried their dead and sometimes created a tombstone or offerings like flowers.<ref>http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis</ref> When a person was injured, they could not survive by themselves, but the age of bones has revealed that the Neandertals took care of their injured.<ref>http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/student/pick2/final.html</ref>
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| − | The Neandertals use the Levallois technique to create their tools by chipping away at a rock with a “flint nodule” until the right size was achieved. Their weapons were thick and heavy, but also accurate. The Neandertals did not make pottery or baskets and they did not sew. They made their clothes out of animal hides. The Neandertals used ostrich eggs as water containers.<ref>http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/student/pick2/final.html</ref>
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| − | ===Bibliography:===
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| − | http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis
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| − | http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/student/pick2/final.html
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| − | http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/student/pick2/final.html
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| − | '''Sophie Clayton'''
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| − | ==20. Mental development==
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| − | The Neandertals' brains are shown to be a greater size than humans. <ref>http://www.stanford.edu/~harryg/protected/chp25.htm</ref> Their brain is 13% bigger than ours. Because of their larger brain, the Neandertals are known to be intelligent. <ref>http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/vida_alien/alien_watchers06.htm</ref> On the other hand, from fossilized teeth we can infer that the childhood of Neandertals was very short. A long childhood allows for a longer time for mental development, so as they mature, the Neandertals must quickly increase their intelligence.<ref>http://phys.org/news/2010-11-analysis-teeth-modern-humans-mature.html</ref> From evidence of respectful burials, we know that their minds interpreted death to be respected, so their brains could observe their surroundings and their lives. The Neandertals were very different from the other primitve beings because of their large brain size.
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| − | ===Bibliography:===
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| − | http://www.stanford.edu/~harryg/protected/chp25.htm
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| − | http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/vida_alien/alien_watchers06.htm
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| − | http://phys.org/news/2010-11-analysis-teeth-modern-humans-mature.html
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| − | ==21. Characteristics of H. sapiens==
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| − | ==**22. technology==
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| − | ==**23. blade and burin society==
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| − | ==**24. weapons==
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| − | ==**25. social organization==
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| − | ==**26. dispersed leadership==
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| − | ==**27. cooperation and its effects==
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| − | ==**28. communication/art==
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| − | ==**29. other advances==
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| − | ==30. Explain both the multiregional and diffusionism/ Out of Africa hypotheses==
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| − | ==31. H. sapiens is the only hominid left. Why?==
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| − | ==32. H. sapiens were able to settle in such diverse habitats. Give reasons and rationale.==
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| − | ==33. Id The Aurignacians==
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| − | ==34. ID Gravettians==
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| − | ==35. ID Magdalenians==
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| − | ==36. ID Natufians==
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